A positioning apparatus for positioning a substrate. The positioning apparatus includes a setting system which selectively sets one of a center of the substrate and a specific portion of an edge of the substrate as a positioning reference in accordance with information inputted to the positioning apparatus, and a positioning system which positions the substrate based on a position of the positioning reference set by the setting system.

 
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> Methods, systems, and computer program products for routing traffic between nodes in a network that are connected by redundant links

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