The disclosure features methods that include: providing a substrate that includes (i) a nucleic acid (e.g., DNA or RNA) encoding a hybrid amino acid sequence including a test amino acid sequence and an affinity tag, and (ii) a binding agent that recognizes the affinity tag; contacting the substrate with a translation effector to thereby translate the hybrid amino acid sequence; maintaining the substrate under conditions permissive for the hybrid amino acid sequence to bind the binding agent; and removing the nucleic acid from the substrate. In one embodiment, the substrate includes a plurality of positionally-distinguishable addresses, for example, each include a different nucleic acid. The addresses can be located a regularly or irregularly spaced locations.